In mountain villages surrounding Sapa town, some Red Dao (Iu Mien) families still preserve small, handwritten books made from coarse, yellow-brown paper. Other Dao subgroups in other regions also follow similar traditions. The pages of these excuisite books are filled with vertical columns of unfamiliar characters, carefully written in black ink. During important ceremonies, a ritual master opens one of these manuscripts and begins to chant.

To an outsider, the book may appear ancient and mysterious, yet it is better understood as part of a living system of knowledge. These manuscripts help Red Dao ritual specialists remember prayers, sacred narratives, ceremonial instructions and the names of spiritual beings. They also connect present-day practitioners with generations of teachers, ancestors and family members who came before them.

The knowledge contained within the books is old, but this does not necessarily mean that every surviving manuscript is itself ancient. A book may have been copied relatively recently from a much older text. For centuries, ritual knowledge was preserved by repeatedly copying manuscripts by hand and passing them from one generation to the next.

Close-up of the indigo-stained hands of a Red Dao (Iu Mien) woman holding a traditional handwritten ritual manuscript on handmade paper during a cultural ceremony in Sa Pa, northern Vietnam. — Indigo stained hands of a Red Dao (Iu Mien) woman carefully holds an ancient bamboo paper manuscript in Sapa.

What Are Red Dao Ritual Books?

Red Dao ritual manuscripts are often described in Vietnamese as sách cúng, meaning ceremonial or worship books, or more generally as sách cổ, meaning old books. They are not ordinary books intended for everyday reading. Most were created for use during religious ceremonies, ancestral rites, funerals, healing rituals, divination, initiation ceremonies and other important community events.

A single ritual specialist may possess a collection of different manuscripts. Each book, or section of a book, may have a particular purpose. One might contain prayers inviting ancestors to attend a ceremony while another might explain how to guide the spirit of a deceased person. Others may contain purification formulas, accounts of important deities, ceremonial songs or instructions for making offerings. The books are therefore best understood as a combination of scripture, ceremonial guide, historical record and technical manual.

What Is Written Inside the Books?

The manuscripts are usually written using a character system commonly known in Vietnam as chữ Nôm Dao. It is based largely on traditional Chinese characters, but it also includes regional forms, altered characters and symbols used to represent Dao words and concepts. This does not mean that the books can simply be read as ordinary Chinese. A reader who knows modern Mandarin may recognise some characters but still be unable to understand or pronounce the text correctly. Red Dao ritual specialists use a specialised ceremonial language that differs from everyday spoken Dao and from modern standard Chinese.

The correct reading of a manuscript depends upon more than recognising individual characters. The reader must also understand the traditional pronunciation, rhythm, sequence and ritual meaning of the words. The contents may include prayers, invocations, stories of gods and ancestors, moral teachings, genealogies, migration histories, calendars, divination methods, funeral instructions and ceremonial formulas. Some collections also preserve songs, herbal knowledge and accounts of King Pan, who is regarded as an ancestral figure by many Dao communities. The manuscripts are therefore far more than collections of spells. Together, they form a written archive of religious belief, history, ethics and cultural memory.

Why Are the Books Written in Vertical Columns?

Like many traditional Chinese and Dao manuscripts, the characters are usually arranged in vertical columns. The reader follows each column from top to bottom before moving to the next column. The precise direction in which the columns are followed may depend upon the manuscript and the tradition of the person who copied it. The writing is normally applied with black ink. Some manuscripts are carefully and evenly written, while others contain additions, corrections, notes or sections copied by different hands.

These differences can tell us something about the history of a book. A manuscript may have been used, repaired and expanded over several generations. Names of owners, teachers or students may also have been added to its pages.

How Is the Traditional Paper Made?

The paper used for Red Dao ritual books is often known as giấy bản, a general Vietnamese term for handmade traditional paper.

In the Sa Pa region, the paper may be made from young bamboo or related forest plants such as nứa, mai or vầu. For this reason, it is often described in English as bamboo paper. However, different Dao communities use different plant materials, so not every traditional Dao manuscript is made from exactly the same fibre.

Making the paper requires time, skill and access to clean water. Young bamboo or suitable plant stems are selected and cut into smaller pieces. The material is then soaked or boiled, often with lime, to soften the fibres and break down the harder parts of the plant. Once softened, the material is washed and pounded until it becomes a fine pulp. The pulp is mixed with water, sometimes together with a natural binding substance made from forest bark or vines. This helps the fibres remain evenly distributed. The liquid pulp is spread across or lifted onto a fine screen. Water drains away, leaving a thin layer of interwoven fibres. The new sheet is then pressed or dried in the sun before being carefully removed.

The finished paper is usually pale cream, beige or yellow-brown. It may contain visible fibres, small marks and variations in thickness. These irregularities are part of its handmade character. Although the surface appears rough, good-quality traditional paper can be remarkably durable. When protected from dampness, insects, smoke and careless handling, it may survive for many decades.

To understand more of the paper making process, the video below shows a Dao family in Tuyên Quang who skillfully create the hand made paper using skills passed own from generation to generation.

How Is a Ritual Manuscript Created?

Once the paper has been prepared, it is cut, folded or assembled into narrow pages or booklets. A knowledgeable copyist then reproduces the text by hand, usually using an older manuscript as the model. Copying a sacred book requires both literacy and familiarity with the ceremonial tradition. The copyist must understand where one passage ends and another begins, which characters have ritual significance and how the text should be read aloud. Small errors may change a name, instruction or ceremonial formula.

However, the process is not always simple word-for-word duplication. A copyist may combine material from several older books, add local explanations or include oral knowledge taught by a ritual master. For this reason, two manuscripts with similar titles may not be identical. A book may also record the name of the person who copied it, commissioned it or inherited it. Later owners may add their own names and annotations. Over time, the manuscript can become a record of the family or teaching lineage through which the knowledge has travelled.

The Red Dao Ritual Knife

Among the ceremonial objects owned by many Red Dao ritual masters is the ritual knife (dao pháp khí). Although it resembles a small dagger, it is not carried as a weapon. Instead, it is regarded as a sacred ceremonial implement used during some of the most important religious ceremonies within Red Dao communities.

The ritual knife may be used during Cấp sắc (initiation) ceremonies, funerals, house blessing rituals, healing ceremonies, ancestor worship and protective or exorcistic rites. During these ceremonies, the knife serves a symbolic rather than practical purpose. Depending upon the ritual and the traditions of the individual lineage, it may be used to establish sacred boundaries, symbolically sever harmful spiritual influences, activate handwritten talismans, direct ritual energy or invoke the protection of deities, ancestral masters and celestial officials.

The knife is rarely used in isolation. It normally forms part of a much larger collection of ceremonial objects belonging to an experienced ritual master. This ritual kit may include handwritten manuscripts, wooden ritual seals, bells and percussion instruments, divination blocks, handwritten talismans, incense implements, ritual paintings and carefully arranged altar furnishings. Each object has a specific role within particular ceremonies, and together they enable the ritual master to conduct complex religious rites that have been passed down through generations.

Like the ritual manuscripts themselves, these ceremonial implements are not simply inherited antiques or decorative objects. They remain practical tools of a living religious tradition, continuing to play an important role in the spiritual and cultural life of many Red Dao communities throughout northern Vietnam.

Traditional Red Dao ritual knife resting on a handwritten ceremonial document, one of the sacred implements used by ritual masters during religious ceremonies in northern Vietnam. — A traditional Red Dao ritual knife resting on a handwritten ceremonial document. The knife is a sacred ceremonial implement used by ritual masters during initiation, healing, ancestral and protective ceremonies.

Keeping the Tradition Alive

Although the number of experienced ritual masters has declined in some villages, there are encouraging signs that Red Dao cultural knowledge continues to be valued by younger generations. In Tả Phìn Village, just outside Sapa, respected ritual masters and community elders organise classes where children and young adults can learn the traditional Dao script, study ceremonial texts and gain a deeper understanding of their cultural heritage.

These classes are not intended simply to teach reading and writing. They help preserve a unique religious tradition, strengthen community identity and ensure that the knowledge needed to conduct ceremonies, interpret sacred manuscripts and pass on oral traditions is not lost. The initiative demonstrates that many Red Dao families see their written language and ritual practices as a living inheritance rather than a museum piece.

Who Is Allowed to Read the Books?

The principal readers are traditionally male Red Dao ritual specialists, commonly called thầy cúng in Vietnamese. The English word “shaman” is often used, but it does not describe every aspect of their role. A Red Dao ritual master may conduct ancestral ceremonies, funerals, healing rites, divination, household rituals and initiation ceremonies. He may communicate with spiritual beings, but he must also understand ceremonial procedures, sacred texts, calendars, offerings and community customs.

For this reason, terms such as ritual master, ceremonial priest or ritual specialist may provide a fuller description. Not every man who can recognise some characters is authorised to perform important ceremonies. Reading the books is only one part of a much larger system of training.

Red Dao ritual master reading from a handwritten ceremonial manuscript during a traditional religious ceremony in Sa Pa, northern Vietnam. — A Red Dao ritual master reads from a handwritten ceremonial manuscript during a traditional religious ceremony in Sapa, Vietnam.

How Does Someone Become a Ritual Master?

Training often begins under the guidance of an older relative or an established ritual master. A student may first learn individual characters, traditional pronunciation and basic moral or ceremonial texts. He must then study the order of rituals, the meanings of offerings, the use of ceremonial objects and the correct way to address particular gods or ancestors. This process can take many years.

Much of the learning happens through observation and repetition. A student may accompany his teacher to ceremonies, help prepare offerings, listen to recitations and gradually learn to perform particular sections. The ability to read a manuscript does not by itself make someone a recognised ritual master. Authority also depends upon apprenticeship, lineage, ceremonial knowledge and initiation.

Red Dao ritual master guiding an apprentice during a traditional initiation ceremony in Sa Pa, Vietnam. — A Red Dao ritual master guides an apprentice during a traditional ceremony. Ritual knowledge is transmitted through years of observation, practice and participation.

The Importance of the Cấp Sắc Ceremony

One of the most important religious events in Dao culture is the cấp sắc ceremony. The details vary between different Dao groups and local traditions, but the ceremony generally gives a man a religious name and establishes his formal relationship with spiritual teachers, ancestors and protective forces. It may also give him authority to participate in or conduct particular ceremonies.

The ritual can include sacred paintings, lamps, drums, bells, offerings, handwritten documents and extended periods of chanting. Senior ritual masters guide the initiate through a complex series of actions and teachings. Ritual manuscripts are closely connected with this system of authority. A person may understand parts of a book, but the right to use certain texts in major ceremonies normally depends upon recognised training and initiation.

How Are the Books Used During Ceremonies?

During a ceremony, the ritual master selects the manuscript appropriate to the occasion. He may sit or stand in front of an altar while holding or resting the book before him. He then chants the text using its traditional ceremonial pronunciation. This recitation is not usually performed in the manner of an ordinary conversation. The words may be melodic, rhythmic and repetitive. Some passages may be spoken quietly, while others are chanted more forcefully.

The text may announce the name of the family, explain the purpose of the ceremony, invite ancestors or gods to attend, present a request, guide a soul, describe an offering or order harmful forces to leave. At particular points, assistants may light incense, present food or rice wine, strike a drum, ring a bell, burn ritual paper or rearrange objects on the altar. The manuscript helps preserve the correct sequence of events. It ensures that important names, instructions and formulas are not forgotten.

Which Ceremonies Require the Books?

Different manuscripts are used for different purposes. They may be consulted during funerals, ancestral rites, healing ceremonies, weddings, New Year observances, prayers for health and safety, divination and cấp sắc initiation ceremonies. Funeral manuscripts may contain instructions concerning the journey of the soul and its relationship with the ancestors. Healing texts may identify spiritual causes of illness or contain prayers requesting protection and recovery.

Other books may be used to choose an appropriate date for a ceremony or important family event. Calendrical and divination knowledge can therefore be closely connected with the religious manuscripts. Not every ceremony requires the same level of knowledge. Some household rites may be relatively simple, while major funerals or initiation ceremonies can require several ritual specialists and many different texts.

Are Women Involved in the Manuscript Tradition?

Sacred ritual authority has traditionally been transmitted primarily through male teaching and family lineages. The main ceremonial manuscripts are therefore most commonly read by men. However, this does not mean that women have no role in Red Dao religious and cultural life. Women may perform important ceremonial songs, prepare offerings, preserve oral histories and participate in rituals in ways that are essential to their success. Some women may also possess songbooks or other written materials.

The exact division of roles differs between families, villages, generations and Dao subgroups. It is therefore important not to assume that every Red Dao community follows precisely the same practice.

Are the Books Considered Sacred?

Many ritual manuscripts are treated with considerable respect. Their significance does not come only from their age. A book may be important because it contains sacred knowledge, belonged to an ancestor or teacher, or demonstrates the owner’s connection to a recognised ritual lineage. Some manuscripts may be shown openly to learners, researchers or visitors. Others may contain restricted material that the owner does not wish to display, translate or photograph.

Visitors should therefore always ask permission before touching or photographing a manuscript. Pages should not be turned without the owner’s agreement, and a ritual book should never be treated simply as an attractive souvenir or decorative object. Buying an old manuscript can also be ethically problematic. Removing it from its family or village may separate the book from the lineage and knowledge that give it meaning.

Ancient Knowledge in a Living Tradition

Red Dao ritual books are sometimes presented as relics from a disappearing past. This description can be misleading.

The tradition has undoubtedly faced serious pressures. Younger generations attend Vietnamese-language schools, families move away from villages and fewer people have the time required to master complex ceremonial writing. Handmade paper has also become less common as commercially produced paper has become easier to obtain. Nevertheless, the books remain part of a living tradition.

They may still be copied, studied, inherited and used during ceremonies. Ritual masters continue to interpret their words, while families continue to rely upon them during some of the most important moments of life and death. A manuscript does more than preserve a fixed text. It links a student to a teacher, a family to its ancestors and a present-day ceremony to generations of earlier practice.

Seeing the Books with Respect

For visitors to Sapa, encountering one of these manuscripts can provide a rare insight into the intellectual and spiritual depth of Red Dao culture. The book should not be understood simply as an exotic object filled with mysterious symbols. Each page represents specialised education, careful craftsmanship and knowledge transmitted across generations.

The handmade paper reflects an intimate understanding of local plants and natural materials. The handwritten characters preserve a sophisticated literary and religious tradition. The recitation connects the visible ceremony with an unseen world of ancestors, teachers, deities and protective spirits. Together, these elements make the Red Dao ritual manuscript one of the region's most remarkable forms of living cultural heritage.

While these sacred ceremonies are private and are not performed as tourist attractions, spending time in Red Dao communities with knowledgeable local guides can provide a far deeper appreciation of the culture, history and traditions that surround them. Walking the mountain trails, learning about medicinal plants, sharing meals with local families and hearing these stories from the people who continue to live them offers an understanding that extends far beyond what can be found in a museum or guidebook.

If you would like to explore this remarkable landscape with respect for the people who call it home, our Highland Herbs Trek & Red Dao Homestay offers the opportunity to walk with local Red Dao guides, forage for medicinal plants, share traditional meals and spend the night with a Red Dao family. The experience has been designed to encourage genuine cultural exchange while directly supporting local communities and helping to preserve the living heritage that makes the mountains around Sapa so special.

Insights and Stories from Sapa and the Northern Borderbelt provinces of Vietnam.

The Sacred Books of the Red Dao: Ritual Manuscripts, Handmade Paper and Living Knowledge